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Trouble at Little Rock Central High School

In 1957, Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas mobilised the Arkansas National Guard to prevent 9 black students from entering the school. As feelings ran high, one student, Elizabeth Eckford, had to be rescued by a bystander. Defiance of federal law spread to other areas. President Eisenhower tried to negotiate a settlement with Faubus. Faubus withdrew the National Guard from the school. Violence broke out. Eisenhower federalised the National Guard and sent 1200 men of the 101st Airborne Division to Little Rock to ensure the children were able to enter the school.

Brown vs Board of Education of Topeka

In 1954 the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren ruled unanimously that the legal establishment of separate government-run schools for blacks and whites was illegal. Linda Brown's family was supported by the NAACP whose chief counsel, Thurgood Marshall, presented their case. The Supreme Court ordered the states to comply with the Brown decision ‘with all deliberate speed.’ This was the first major victory for the Civil Rights Movement.

Malcolm X: Racism in the United States

'The problem is still here'. Malcolm X expresses doubt that whites can solve the problem of racism in the United States. The catague of failure, he says, extends from Lincoln, the Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation, through to the passing of the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments, through the Supreme Court decisions on desegregation to President Kennedy's current inactivity on the Civil Rights front despite the overwhelming support of black voters.

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March on Washington. 'I have a dream'

Malcolm X. Why he left the Black Muslims

Following his visit to Mecca, Malcolm X says that it came as a shock to him and to other black Muslims that there are white Muslims. He says that he stands for 'morality, unity and militancy'. He criticises Elijah Mohammed, leader of the Black Muslims, for having 8 children by 6 teenage wives. He says his life has been threatened and that he is prepared to defend himself if necessary.

Muhammed Ali on his conversion to Islam

Ali, formerly Cassius Clay, attributes his defeat of Sonny Liston to gain the World Heavyweight Championship crown to his conversion to Islam.

Acronyms, Keywords and Ideas

NAACP: (pronounced N double A CP) National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People
SCLC : Southern Christian Leadership Council
SNCC : Student Non-violent Co-ordinating Committee
CORE : Congress of Racial Equality

Segregation: Racial separation in all aspects of life in the Deep South maintained through the 'Jim Crow' Laws
Sit-in: Peaceful protest initially challenging segregation at the Woolworths lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina and then adopted and adapted by other protesters e.g. wade-ins at segregated beaches.

Non-violent protest: Martin Luther King advocated non-violent protest based on the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi who led the struggle for an independent India free from Britain. As a result other racial groups including whites were prepared to support the civil rights movement.
'Black is Beautiful': Stokely Carmichael encouraged black Americans to have pride in their colour, their appearance, their culture and their African roots.

Extract from Timeline 1941-1990

1954
17th May:  Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. The Supreme Court ruled that 'separate but equal' in government-run schools was illegal.

1955
5th December: Montgomery Bus Boycott. Following Rosa Parks's refusal to give up her seat on a bus on the1st December, a boycott of the Montgomery bus system was organised by Martin Luther King. It ended in December 1956, after the Supreme Court declared that segregation on the buses was illegal.

1957
14th February: Southern Christian Leadership Conference. The SCLC was set up. Martin Luther King was elected as president.
4th September: Little Rock Central High School. Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas precipitated a trial of strength with the federal government by preventing nine black students from enrolling at the school. Eventually President Eisenhower mobilised troops which included the 101st Airborne Division to ensure that the pupils were able to take their places.

Extract from Potted Biographies

James Meredith was the first black student to attend the University of Mississippi.He enrolled in October 1962 and graduated in August of the following year with a degree in political science. President Kennedy acted to enforce the Supreme Court's decision to uphold a federal court decision compelling the University to accept his entry. Federal marshalls and troops were mobilised to protect him. Riots on the campus left two dead and many injured.